ISLAMIC HISTORY AND CULTURE PART - II

MUSLIMS IN SPAIN

Notes of Study Area – I (A)

CONDITIONS OF SPAIN BEFORE THE ARRIVAL OF MUSLIMS

i.	Religious Conditions
§	The sons of the Spanish soil were the ‘Nature Worshippers’.
§	The second major religious faction was Jews.
§	The Gothic rulers, who were Roman Catholic, victimized Jews.
§	Jews were forcibly converted to Christianity.
§	Climax of intolerance 694 A.D – when Jews were sold with exception of children who were to be converted to Christianity.
§	Jewish uprising had occurred but it failed miserably.

ii.	Social Conditions
§	The crown, the church, the Princes, the lords or nobles were different heads of powers.
§	Burgers, Serfs, Slaves.
§	No inter-marriages between the ruling Visigoths and Hispano-Romans.
§	This ban was put off later.
§	The slaves were in worst conditions.

iii.	Economic Conditions
Both Agricultural and Trade were in vogue.
§	No taxes were imposed upon the privileged class.
§	Middle class had to bear all burden of taxation.
§	Land was maintained by Slaves and Serfs.
§	Heavy taxes on traders and industrialists who constituted the middle class of the society.

iv.	Political Conditions
§	First there was tradition of electing the king by tribal chiefs, nobles and the Church.
§	A lot of intrigues took place during the election of a new king.
§	Army, nobles and church were the different heads of power.
§	Rebellious conditions prevailed perpetually.
§	King Roderick was the last Visigoth ruler.

CONQUEST OF SPAIN BY MUSLIMS - 711 A.D

1	Count Julian’s invitation
§	Count Julian was one of the nobles of the day
§	Florinda was the daughter of Count Julian.
§	As the custom went, the children of the nobles were brought up in royal court.
§	Thus, Florinda lived in king Roderick’s court.
§	Roderick dishonoured Florinda.
§	To avenge his daughter’s dishonour, Count Julian invited Musa, the governor of Qayrowan to invade Spain and over throw king Roderick. 

2	Musa sent Tarif, the Berber Commander
1	To probe into the conditions prevailing there.
2	Tarif was accompanied with 400 men.
3	He reported to Musa, the governor, that the conditions were favourable.

3	Tariq bin Ziyad (April – 711 A.D)
1	Tariq marched with his 7000 men.
2	They crossed narrow sea strip, strait of Gibralter in four boats provided by Count Julian.
3	They landed at Jabal-e-Tariq, which is now called Jibralter.

4	Algeciras
1	Tariq captured Algeciras without any difficulty and made it the base camp for his men.

5	Roderick, the King
2	Roderick was a usurper.
3	He ascended to throne after unseating his predecessor Watiza.
4	At the time of invasion by Muslim forces, he was engaged in campaign against Basque rebels in north of Spain.
5	Upon hearing the news of invasion, he marched with his 40,000 troops towards Tariq.

6	Battle of Barbate
1	Both troops came face to face on the banks of Barbate River (Guadal quiver).
2	The army of Roderick was four times larger than that of Tariq.
3	Tariq burnt the boats in the sea as to obviate idea or attempt of fleeing in anyone’s mind.
4	The companions of Roderick also included followers of former king, Witiza.
5	They deserted king Roderick and joined Count Julian.
6	The battle lasted for a week.
7	Roderick was defeated and drowned.

7	Tariq advances despite Musa’s call of return
1	Musa, the governor asked Tariq to return and warned him of advancing further.
2	Tariq, however, did not comply and went ahead by dividing his men into many factions to spread them in all parts of Spain.

8	Conquest of Cordova
1	Cordova was an important city of Spain, situated along the river Guadal quiver.
2	Mughalith ar-Rumi, commander of one detachment of Tariq’s army, marched towards cordova and conquered it.

9	Conquest of Elvira, Malaga
1	Qais bin Qesadi, the commander of another detachment, marched towards Elvira and occupied it.
2	He also captured Malaga city.

10	Jews Welcome Muslim rulers
1	Jews were sick of Roderick’s oppression.
2	They welcomed Muslim rulers and regarded them as liberators.
3	The Muslim rulers emancipated Jews and granted them religious freedom.

11	Conquest of Toledo – 711 A.D
1	Tariq marched towards Toledo, the capital city and captured it without any resistance.
2	He also took hold of treasures of Gothic rulers which included Golden table. 

12	Conquest of Medina Sidonia, Seville, Carmona by Musa himself in 712 A.D
1	Musa bin Nasayr himself advanced to western cities of Spain.
2	He wanted to share the laurels and victory of conquering Spain with Tariq.
3	He conquered Medina, Sidonia, Seville and Carmona.

13	Siege of Merida
1	Roderick’s Queen Agela, Arabs called her Ayela, was in Merida city.
2	Merida was a strongly defended city of Spain.
3	Musa warned its governor Saracus to surrender or pay Jizya, but he refused.
4	Musa sieged the city for six months and eventually captured it.

14	Theodomir’s Treaty with Abdul Aziz
1	Abdul Aziz, the son of Musa, marched towards eastern Spain.
2	Theodomir, the count of eastern Spain, disguised himself as an agent and came to offer peace terms with Muslims.
3	Muslims negotiated the terms and Treaty of Peace was accepted mutually.

15	Musa meets Tariq – 713 A.D
1	Musa met Tariq at Talavera, west of Toledo in 713 A.D.
2	He scolded and imprisoned Tariq.
3	Mughalith warned Musa to treat him with respect.
4	The Berbers also pressurized Musa to release Tariq.
5	Count Julain convinced Musa that it was he who persuaded Tariq for invasion.
6	Musa finally released Tariq.

16	Conquest of Northern Spain
1	Musa and Tariq jointly marched towards northern Spain.
2	They captured Barcelona, Leon and Saragossa.
3	Muslim rule was established in Spain.

17	Social revolution in Spain
1	Muslim rule in Spain brought an end to oppressive regime of Roderick.
2	Slaves were enfranchised by Muslim rulers.
3	The confiscated land was divided among the masses.
4	The powers of privileged classes were diluted.
5	Religious freedom was extended to everyone.
6	Economic security was everyone’s right.
7	Christians embraced Islam in large number which revolutionized their lives.
8	Most of gothic nobles also accepted Islam.
9	The lives of servile classes were ameliorated.

18	Conclusion
1	The victories of Musa and Tariq were spectacular.
2	They were brave, competent and valiant generals.
3	Later, Walid bin Abdul Malik recalled both of them.

“In swiftness of execution and completeness of success, this expedition into Spain holds a unique place in medieval Military annals.”
(P. K. Hitti)

ABDUL REHMAN – I (AD-DAKHIL) (757-788 A.D)

Introduction:
1	He was grandson of Hisham, the 10th Caliph of Umayyads.
2	He fled to North Africa after the battle of zab in 750 A.D.
3	He escaped assassination at the hands of North African governor, Ibn Habib al-Fahri.
4	Being a son of Berber mother, he reached Centa, North Africa where his maternal uncles lived.

His Claim to rule  Iberian Peninsula
1	AR-I sent his faithful freedman, Badr, to Spain to find out if the people of Spain would welcome and support him against the ruling governor appointed by Umayyad Caliph of Damascus.
2	Badr reported to AR-I that conditions were favourable.

Rivalry between Qaisites and Yeminites
3	Qaisites under Yusuf al-Fahri, the then governor, had defeated Yemenites in the battle of Secunda in 750.
4	Yemenites were thus ready to welcome any ruler who could emancipate them from oppressive rule of Qaisites.
5	They supported AR-I when he landed in Spain.

Rejection of Yusuf al-Fahri’s Offers
6	Seeing the massive backing of AR-I by Berbers and Yemenites, Yusuf Al-Fahri, offered him landed estate and many gifts to obviate any attempt of intrusion in his rule.
7	AR-I, however, turned down all offers as he believed he had come to rule over the region.

Battle of Masarah – 756 A.D
8	AR-I united Yeminites and Berbers against Qaisites.
9	The Yemenites proclaimed AR-I as Emir of Spain.
10	He defeated Yusuf al-Fahri’s army and al-Fahri himself surrendered.
11	As a result, AR-I captured Cordova in 757 A.D

A Radical Transformation of ties between Spain and North Africa
12	 It is notable that the coming of AR-I’s power brought a radically transformed nature of ties between Spain and North Africa.
13	For the first four and half decades (45Years), of Arab rule in Spain, Al-Andulus was in many ways a dependency of Africa.
14	Although, nominally by the command of the Caliphs, most of the governors has been nominated.
15	The earliest forms of Arabic lineage in Spain were of African rather than indigenous Spanish tribes.
16	AR-I reversed all this, and continued his task to pacify the country and to consolidate it in the face of fierce conflicts and rivalries.

Internal Conflicts of AR-I
17	AR-I soon found that the throne of Spain was no bed of roses.
18	The Arab tribes including Yemenites and Berbers yearned for anarchy, pillaging and wanted to turn Spain into a sort of conglomeration of petty tribal kingdoms.
19	Berbers believed that they were denied of equal treatment with the Arab tribes.
20	AR-I was steel made , a man of energy.
21	He remained steadfast to fight against a long chain of internal conflicts with iron hands.

Yusuf Al-Fahri’s revolt – 758 A.D
22	Yusuf Al-Fahri had been  leniently treated by AR-I.
23	Yusuf’s fibirite and Mudharite client, Yemenite group of tribes constantly prodded him to revolt against AR-I. 
24	Yusuf finally revolted in 758 A.D and captured Toledo.
25	Sumayal did not join his uprising and remained faithful to AR-I but suspecting his loyalty he was strangled to death in prison.
26	Abdul Malik bin Umar, cousin of AR-I inflicted defeat on Yusuf.
27	Yusuf was killed by his own followers on his way back from Toledo.
28	His head was sent to Emir at the Cordova and his son Abu Zaid as hostage.
29	Later on, both the heads of Yusuf and  his son were decapitated and nailed to the gate of the capital.

The Yemenite Revolt (Ala Ibn Mughith)
30	The Yemenites, the former supporters of AR-I revolted in 763 A.D.
31	They were led by Ala Ibn Mughitth, who was instigated by the Abbasid Caliph Jafar Al-Mansur.
32	The rebels besieged the Emir AR-I in Carmona.
33	AR-I was in a very critical position.
34	AR-I fought as if it were the last battle of his life.
35	Finally, the rebels were captured, and beheaded.
36	Their heads were wrapped in Abbasid black flag and sent to Caliph Al-Mansur.
37	Upon witnessing this, Mansur cried.
“Thank God! He has placed sea between me and such a foe.”
38	On another occasion, Mansur entitled AR-I as “FALCON OF QURAISH”.

Revolt of Abu Sabbah
39	Abu Sabbah was a Yemenite leader.
40	AR-I knew his rebellious intentions.
41	To placate him, AR-I appointed him as governor of Seville.
42	In 766 A.D, Abu Sabbah was invited to the palace, where he was killed.

AR-I’s Mercenary Army
43	The Berbers and the Yemenites were the sole supporters of AR-I when he entered Spain.
44	However, after their repeated revolts, they were no longer reliable.
45	AR-I recruited Berbers of North Africa as his Mercenary Troops.
46	They would be paid by AR-I in return of their fighting for him.

Abu Ghalib Tamam As Emir-ul-Bahar
47	To check intrigues and instigations of the Abbasids in the east, he built a navy and placed Abu Ghalib as Emir-ul-Bahar or the Admiral.
48	Abu Ghalib proved an effective admiral and he strengthened AR-I’s fleet as much as it was then possible.

The Berber Revolt
49	The Berbers of the east instigated by the school master Shakya revolted.
50	Yemenites joined them to avenge Abu Sabbah’s death.
51	Their revolt was turned down in 774 A.D.

Charlemagne’s Invasion
52	Charlemagne, the emperor of Franks, invaded Spain and was also supported by the Abbasids of Baghdad and Muslim rebels of Sargossa.
53	In 777 A.D, Charlemagne invaded Spain to derive out Islam from Al-Andulus.
54	A blue eyed son-in-law of Yusuf Al-Fahri also invited the Franks.
55	As the Christians passed the Pyrenees and reached Sargossa, they were defended by Hussain bin Yahya Al-Ansari.
56	On its retreat, the Christian Army was attacked by the Basques.
57	They were defeated at Pamplona.
58	Roland, the nephew of emperor, was also killed by his own fellow Christians at Roncesvalles pass in 778 A.D.

Revolt of Hussian Ibne Yahya
59	He was the governor of Sargossa.
60	He revolted in 780 A.D. and claimed himself as governor of Spain on the instigations of Abbasids.
61	Abu Ghalib Tamam led siege to the city of Sargossa.
62	Finally, Hussain Ibne Yahya was executed.

Revolt of Abul Aswat
63	He was the youngest son of Yusuf Al-Fahri.
64	He revolted but was defeated in 784 A.D
65	He fled away towards Toledo.

AR-I’s policy of Moderation and Magnanimity
66	AR-I was moderate and Magnanimous to a great deal.
67	His policy earned him respect and admiration of both friends and foes alike.
68	These two qualities for which he risked his throne many times because the rebels took advantage of it.

AR-I as Administrator
69	Besides being, a matchless general of the day, he also proved to be very good administrator.
70	He divided Spain into six provinces.
71	Each province had a governor called Wali.
72	Later on, a Prime Minister, called Hajib was also appointed.
73	The first Hajib was Abu Ghalib Tamam.
74	And last of AR-I’s Hajib was a eunuch Mansur.
75	AR-I also reorganized the governmental system.

Cultural Achievements
i.	Establishment of cities; He established and embellished cities mosques, bridges, water channels and fortresses called ribats especially in Cordova.
ii.	Palace of Rusafa; AR-I’s nostalgia of his birth place is beautifully reflected in Palace of Rusafa. It was his private dwelling, full of gardens, like the palace of his grandfather Hisham.
iii.	Grand Mosque of Cordova; This is an eternal Masterpiece of Muslim grandeur and sublimity in the world. Its construction started in 786 A.D. It is rectangular in shape, pulpit made of gold, ivory and costly stones.

ABDUL REHMAN – II ( AL – ASWAT ) 822-852 A.D

Introduction:
76	AR-II was an energetic, artisan of the Umayyad Spanish unity and a zealous patron of Music, art, science and astronomy.
77	He was a wise and sagacious ruler endowed with political insight, administrative acumen and military foresightedness.
78	His reign has been symbolized as an age of peace and prosperity which the Muslim Spain had not enjoyed before.
79	His foreign policy based on the principles of defending his kingdom against all aggressors, the organization of administrative system, the patronage of art and science, speak of his thrity years of pacified rule.
80	During his reign, the Arabian culture, language and lifestyle so influenced the Spanish Christians that these Mozarabs or Arabicized Christians were fully imbued with the Arabic ways of life despite the strong disapproval of their fanatical co-religionists.

A period of Prosperity
81	AR-II’s reign of thirty years was comparatively far more peaceful than that of his predecessors.
82	It was a period of prosperity which was unprecedented for the Spanish Muslims.
83	The prediction of Hakam, his father, came true to a great extent when he advised his son, “Peaceful are the provinces, which I hand down to you. They are a couch on which you may repose undisturbed. I have taken care that no rebellion shall break in upon your sleep.”

Revolt of AR-II’s Grand Uncle
84	Since the days of Hakam, his uncle Abdullah bin AR-I had resided at Tangir in Africa.
85	His sons held high posts in the court of AR-II.
86	When he revolted he thought his sons would support him but they didn’t.
87	When his revolt failed, he went to Valencia.
88	On the son’s advice, he submitted to the Emir.
89	He was forgiven and appointed as the governor of Murcia by AR-II.
Scuffles between Mudharites and Yemenites
90	There broke out scuffles between Mudharites and Yemenites.
91	In Tadmir, southern Spain, two tribes started fighting due to their old tribal jealousies and sectarian disputes.
92	Emir sent royal troops which restored peace in 828 A.D.

Revolt in Merida on the issue of Taxes – 822 A.D
93	Christian majority of Merida revolted on the issue of taxes.
94	The revolt was laid by Mehmud Ibn Abdul Jabbar on the instigation of Frankish emperor Charlemagne.
95	After Charlemagne’s death, his son Luis the Pious, supported the rebellious.
96	This revolt was crushed and Mehmud, former tax collector went to Sargossa.

Revolt of Blacksmith in Toledo
97	In 829 A.D, a neo-Muslim Hashim, who was a blacksmith led uprising with the support of Luis.
98	Christians destroyed the fort.
99	Emir sent his brother Umayya bin Hakam, who led siege to Toledo for two years.
100	Then, Abu Ayub Misara, a new commander was sent who crushed the revolt.
101	Fort rebuild and general amnesty to Toledians was granted in 837 A.D.

Diplomatic Exchanges with Byzantines
102	During AR-II’s days, the Abbasid caliph Haroon-ul-Rasheed, attacked Byzantine Empire.
103	The Byzantine Emperor, Theophilus, sort to establish diplomatic relations with AR-II.
104	Emir sent Yahya Al-Ghazab, a scholar, poet and physician, to hold diplomatic relations with Theophilus.

Issue of Blasphemy
105	Some Christians of Cordova launched a political Movement under the guise of religion.
106	This was a reaction of the Spanish church, against Islam and Muslim rule in Spain.
107	Some fanatic Christians had adopted the way of seeking martyrdom by blaspheming Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H).
108	They were canonized as the martyred saints.
109	AR-II summoned the church council in Cordova and ordered them to stop the blasphemous acts.

AR-II’s Foreign Policy
110	His foreign policy based on the principles of defending kingdom against all aggressors.
111	Further, he believed in balance of power doctrine.
112	He created an alliance with Byzantines to counter their common enemies Abbasids and Franks.

AR-II’s Administrative System
113	One of his greatest achievements was the reorganization of the governmental and administrative system.
114	He divided the provinces into districts called ‘Kuras’.
115	Each province had a governor called ‘Wali’.
116	Emir was assisted by ‘Hajib’ or Prime Minister.
117	A ‘Muhtasib’ served as a civic officer to supervise markets and morals of city dwellers.
118	‘Sahib-ul-Madina’ was also appointed who served as a prefect, police chief of the city.

Four Favourtes of the Emir
119	Reinhart Dozy writes that AR-II’s life was dominated by his four favourites; A theologian, Singer, Woman and a Eunuch.

i.	Yahya bin Yahya, a theologian: He was a student of Imam Malik and was responsible for the introduction of Malik school of thought in Spain. AR-II gave great respect to Yahya who one’s revolted against his father Al-Hakam. All the Judicial departments were under control of Yahya.

ii.	Ziryab, A Musician: Ali bin Nafe surnamed as Ziryab was a Persian and celebrated court musician of Haroon-ul-Rasheed, the Abbasid Caliph. However, Ishaq Mawasili, his teacher out of jealousy sent him away. Thus, AR-II, a great lover of Music, patronized this talented artist in his royal court. Here Ziryab, revolutionized the customs, the manners and lifestyles of Spanish people.

iii.	Sultana Tarub, A Woman: AR-II was highly in love with Sultana Tarub. She was crazy about gold. She wanted her son Abdullah to be AR-II’s successor but AR-II disliked him and wanted his another son Muhammad as his successor. Tarub along with Nasr, the eunuch, planned to give poison to the Emir when he was sick but he plot was disclosed.

iv.	Nasr, the eunuch: He was the powerful eunuch. He exercised great influence on AR-II.

Collection and Translation of literary works during his reign
120	As a great patron of art, music, science and literature, he was blessed with the aesthetic sense of the highest order.
121	He invited eminent scholars on all subjects of science, philosophy, religion, medicine, astronomy, astrology who flocked in Cordova where they received generous welcome by him.
122	He sent agents to distant places to collect rare books.
123	Abbass bin Nasib brought Arabic translations of Persian and Greek works from Mesopotamia.
124	Translation work was done on very large scale.
125	This translation institution was so highly recognized even after the fall of Muslim Spain that the Europeans adopted the method on the same pattern.

Public Works
126	Under his wise administration, the revenue of Al-Andulus was considerably increased.
127	He spent a huge amount of money for building palaces, bridges, and laying out pleasure gardens, public baths, street lights, new hospitals and public health department during his time.
Conclusion
128	Sedillot says of AR-II,
“The Splendid culture, the polished chivalry, the delicacy, grace and elegance of Arab manners which European chivalry afterwards adopted date back to this epoch.”
129	Dozy says, 
“Never had the courts of Sultan of Spain been so brilliant as it became under the rule of AR-II”.

Ziryab (Ali bin Nafe)
Intorduction
130	His real name was Ali bin Nafe. He was a Persian tenor.
131	He was amongst those celebrated musicians who had the privilege to echo their voice in the courts of Harun-al-Rashid in Baghdad and Abdul Rehman – II in Cordova.
132	He distinguished himself not only as an excellent artist but also as a man of letters.
133	He was also a poet and a historian.
134	He was well-versed in many genres connected with music.
135	He was gifted with a prodigious memory which enabled him to retain one thousand songs in it. This number exceeds those recorded by Ptolemy, the first person to give rules on the science of music.
136	His charming voice and quick-wittedness made him the most popular figure among the smart set of time.

Disciple of Ishaq Mawasli
137	Ishaq Mawasli was a renowned musician at the court of Harun-al-Rashid, the then Baghdad Caliph.
138	Ziryab was a disciple of Ishaq Mawasli and was introduced by him to the court of Caliph.

Ziryab’s entry in Harun’s Court
139	Harun highly praised Ziryab’s talent and charming voice.
140	Ziryab had won the heart of Harun by his enchanting musical chords and motivating lyrics.
141	Zriyab used to sing songs on the tune of his own lute.
142	Harun awarded many gifts to Ziryab and to Ishaq for bringing the best musician to his court.

Ziryab as a great singer
143	Ziryab was a unique singer owing to the fact that he often sung his own composed poetry.
144	He claimed that he was taught singing by supernatural forces.
145	He asserted that a Jin would come in his dream and sing a song which he retained when he woke up.
146	He had two slave girls namely; Ghazzlan and Hindah.
147	It is also believed that he invented an instrument of his own which had five strings.
148	That instrument supposedly excelled the ‘Udul-al-Shabut’ invented by Zalat, a renowned singer of Baghdad.

Ziryab’s Journey to Spain
149	After leaving Baghdad due to threats of Ishaq who became jealous of his recognition, he went to al-Mughrib to seek his fortune.
150	As he neared Spain, he heard the news of demise of Al-Hakam upon whose invitation he was marching to Spain.
151	Later on, he was welcomed by AR-II in a blossoming manner.

Ziryab in the court of AR-II
152	AR-II was deeply immersed in the music of Ziryab
153	Emir AR-II had rewarded Ziryab with high titles and gifts.
154	Ziryab exercised huge influence in Emir AR-II’s court.
155	There Ziryab wished to become a Qazi in Cordova and become familiar with theology.
156	AR-II did not want him to quit music become Qazi. Thus Ziryab remained a singer.

Ziryab and the Fashion
157	Ziryab revolutionized the customs and outfits of Spanish people.
158	He inculcated in their minds to change the clothing according to seasons.
159	He introduced soft couches made of leather to repose on rather than old hard stuff.
160	He instructed them to use vessels of crystal rather than gold or silver.
161	In a nutshell, a influenced culture of Spain to a great extent.

Conlcusion
162	Ziryab was undoubtedly an epitome of Muslim expertise in art in general and Music in specific.
163	He was a devoted artisan who regaled Spanish people with his awesomely composed music and attractive voice.

ABDUL REHMAN – III (AL-NASIR) 912-961 A.D

Introduction:
164	AR-III was undoubtedly the greatest and most remarkable ruler of Umayyad Spain.
165	When he ascended to the Spanish throne, his kingdom was in a deplorable condition with revolts on all sides and the Christians in the north, and the fatimids in the north Africa threatening to advance.
166	But, Salute to his resoluteness bravery, gallantry and prudence that wrenched order out of disorder and restored peace with a vision.
167	He made Islamic Spain most powerful, richest and prestigious state to this extent that this glory, splendour and grandeur became the hallmark of his reign.
168	The achievements of this, “Meek, Generous and Wonderful ruler” were equally remarkable and great both on the fields of battle and in the arts of peace.
169	As Hitti says, “The young Emir was the man of the honour.”

Conditions of Spain at the time of his accession to throne
170	Spain was in deplorable conditions.
171	The authority of emir was confined to Cordova only.
172	Other provinces of the Emirate were in hands of Arabs or Christian rebels and Christian kings in the North.
173	Grenada, Medina Sidonia, Jaen, Moron, Tadmir were in central and eastern Spain where various Muslims and Christian rebels were in power.

Abdul Rehman – III as Emir
174	His reign as Emir lasted from 912 to 929 A.D.
175	During this period, he had to confront with innumerable problems.
176	But he was endowed with great qualities.
177	Everyone lauded his talents, clemency and moderation.
178	As Emir, declared to all insurgents; Arabs, Berbers, Mawalids and Christians that what he wanted from them was not their tributes but their castles, cities and complete authority.

Submission of the Rebels
179	Ecija was the first city to submit to Emir in 912 A.D.
180	The frank and chivalrous manners of this handsome king brought not only victories but boosted the morale of his troops.
181	He was firm, resolute, daring and moderate general who adopted the bold and straight forward policy towards his enemies and rebels.
182	Most of the rebels submitted to him without much resistance.

AR-III’s Conquests
i.	Jaen, Elvira, Archedonia
§	These three cities were captured from the allies of Ibne Habsud within a short span of three months.
ii.	Muhammad Ibne Ibrahim of Seville
1	In Seville, Muhammad bin Ibrahim, came to Cordova, and submitted to Emir.
2	But when Royal army reached at the gates of Seville, Mawalids rebels refused to submit.
3	Muhammad fled to Bobastro and the Sevillians nobles submitted in 913 A.D.
4	Later on, Muhammad also surrendered and joined royal army.

iii.	War with Ibne Hafsun
1	Ibne Hafsun, old and inveterate enemy of Emirate known as Samuel, was powerful in Serronia region where Christianity was supreme.
2	AR-III resolved to crush him
3	Meanwhile, Medina Sidonia, Moron and Carmona were submitted.
4	Ibne Hafsun dies in 917 A.D.

iv.	Valencia, Sargossa, Toledo
1	The province of Valencia came under AR-III rule in 924 A.D
2	Beni Qasi of Sargossa also surrendered at the hands of AR-III and joined royal army.
3	AR-III pledged to bring Toledo under his kingship and therefore built a town outside Toledo.
4	Toledians resisted initially but yielded later on in 932 A.D.

AR-III as a Caliph
1	AR-III assumed the title of Caliph, ‘An-Nasir li Din illah’, The Defender of religion of Allah, in 929 A.D
2	He issued gold coins to compete with the Fatimids and Byzantines in international markets.
3	His rule as a caliph lasted from 929 to 961 A.D.

External Enemies of the AR-III
1	Fatimids in North Africa and Christians in North of Spain.
2	Fatimids had complete control over north Africa and regarded Abbasids as usurpers.
3	AR-III never fought war with Fatimids but he fought proxy wars with them in North Africa.

War with Ordono-II
4	Ordono-II, king of Leon, ravished Muslim territory.
5	AR-III sent his Wazir, Hajib Badr, to defeat the king of Leon.
6	The Christians were defeated in the battle of reeds.
7	AR-III himself set out for the north to punish the Christians and captured city after city.

AR-III’s Foreign Policy
8	In order to counter the threat of invasion by Fatimids, AR-III entered into relations with Byzantines, King of Italy and King of Germany.

Prosperity under AR-III
9	AR-III’s reign witnessed the greatest development and progress in the history of Spain.
10	Agriculture, Industry, Trade, Learning and culture and Music touched its zenith during his reign.

Development of Agriculture
11	Scientist of his age introduced new arts of agriculture and horticulture for better production of crops.
12	During his rule Spain presented spectacle of highly cultivated and richly productive garden.
13	Spain became famous for zoological and botanical gardens.
14	Sugarcane, rice, oranges, cotton fruits and other oriental plants were introduced.
15	In a way, Spain became food basket for Europe.

Development of Industry
16	Industry got boost in his reign.
17	Silk, Cotton, Wool, Leather and Metal in Seville, Cordova, and other cities added to the wealth of Spain.
18	The silk from Valencia, weapon from Toledo, leather and books from Cordova, were supplied to the rest of the world.
19	Saddles made of silk were considered superior in the whole of Spain.

Trade
20	Due to industrial development, and conducive environment, import and export increased revenues and prosperity of Spain.
21	Trade was mainly carried with Byzantines and with the Muslims (Baghdad and Damascus), with Mediterranean Island and Tunisia.

Learning and Culture
22	AR-III patronized literature and Science and spent one-third of the state money annually on the advancement of the learning and culture.
23	He also ordered to build university of Cordova.
24	Philosophers like Ibne Masara, Historians like Ibn-ul-Ahmer, Astronomers like Ahmer bin Nasab, And Muslaima Ibn-ul-Qasim, and Physicians like Yahya bin Ishaque.

Development of Music
25	Mut’a, a pupil of Ziryab captivated heart of AR-III.
26	He composed poems rare in the east.
27	He composed new forms of poetical and musical composition.

Medinat-ul-Zahra
1	He built the most magnificent palace called Medinat-ul-Zahra.
2	It was initiated after his beloved wife Zahra asked him to found a city and name it after her name.
3	It was situated 25Kms away in the north-west of Cordova.
4	To attract inhabitants, he offered 400 dirhams to the settlers.

Conclusion
28	AR-III was blessed with extraordinary administrative capacity, industry and daring.
29	Al-Maqqari says that he was the mildest and the most enlightened sovereign that ever ruled the country.
“His weakness, generosity, and his love of justice, became proverbial.”
30	His ideas were typical of a modern monarch rather than those of a medieval ruler.
31	Like Sher Shah of India, he personally looked after the every minute details of his administration.
32	He was tolerant and won the public sympathy by reducing lawful and abolishing unauthorized taxes.

“Never before was Cordova, so prosperous, Andulusia so rich, and the state so triumphant.”
(P. K. Hitti)

“He raised the ruined country to a tradition such as the wildest imaginations can hardly conjure up.”
(Lan Pool)

CAUSES OF THE DOWNFALL OF MUSLIM EMPIRE IN SPAIN
Introduction
1	The greatest loss of an empire in the Islamic history was downfall of Muslim Empire in Spain.
2	The reason being, Cordova, which remained a splendid and glorious center of Muslim Power, authority, culture, art, knowledge and learning for almost eight centuries fell.
3	Following reasons may be cited for its downfall;

i.	Internal Conflict
§	Internal rivalries ate away the consolidation of the Empire like termites.
§	It cultivated hazardous effects and chronic impacts over the Empire.
§	The omens of disintegration became too obvious to be conceived much earlier.

ii.	Collapse of Administrative Machinery
1	After Abdul Rehman-I, AR-II and AR-III, the administration of the Empire weakened rapidly and eventually led to its fall.
2	The provinces in the far off  suffered ignorance and ill-administration of the center.
3	This diluted the solidarity of the provinces with the center.
4	Besides, no measures were taken to ensure security and peace in the Empire after it spread to far north in Africa.

iii.	Degeneration of Muslim Nobility
5	Muslim rulers and nobles condoned sensuality and internal rivalry with the passage of time.
6	They adhered to worldly pleasures while abandoning morality in their lives.
7	Thus, they lost simplicity and purity which were the unmatched principles found in Muslim rulers.
“Love of Music and pleasure, indulgence in debauchery and drinking, ultimately corrupted and enfeebled both rulers and subjects.”
(Arshad Khan)

iv.	Lack of National Integrity
8	Spanish Empire was home to multifaceted people belonging to various creeds and practicing number of religions.
9	It was home to Muslims, Christians, Jews, Berbers and pagans altogether.
10	It accommodated men belonging to Arabian Peninsula, Europe and Africa.
11	Except AR-III, no other ruler could sustain the harmony between ethnically diverse communities dwelling in the same region.

v.	Succession Controversies
12	The Arab tradition of electing a caliph was based on age, maturity or in some cases blood relative of the ancestor ruler.
13	Thus, a definite succession law was non-existent in the Spanish Empire which led to the controversies among the aspirants to the throne.

vi.	Collapse of Military Power
14	The military might of the Spanish Empire had aged considerably and needed rejuvenation imperatively.
15	Some of the defeats faced by Muslim commanders had also contributed in demoralizing them.
16	With the diluting military power, it was next to impossible to govern an Empire abundant of rebellions and multiple differences.

vii.	Unfavourable Geographical Proximity within Empire
17	The vast Empire was hard to control for a single king/ruler.
18	The geographical distances of each province demanded vigilant check over borders and subjects.
19	The communication was not rapid between the second fiddles of the king/ruler.
20	The haphazard infrastructure was also a barrier in the swift movement of army around the Empire. 

viii.	Rebellious Attacks
21	Several rebellious movements were launched against Muslim rule in Spain.
22	These were often orchestrated by Christians, Romans or Berbers.
23	They succeeded in gathering large number of rebellions and prepared for retaliation against Muslim ruler.
24	Though they met crushing defeat most of the times, yet their evil intentions had precipitated the fall of Empire.

ix.	Condoning of Faqihs
25	The faqihs (Jurists) had also succumbed to the will of rulers to appease them.
26	Their blind condoning had poisoned the social and theological system.

x.	Christian Invasion
1	The Christians of Europe never tolerated the Muslim existence in Spain
2	Thus, the kept launching attacks on Muslim Spain
3	It weakened Muslim power a great deal and contributed to its final downfall.

Notes of Study Area – I (B)

DEVELOPMENT OF HISTORY IN SPAIN
Introduction:
1	Before the advent of Islam, there was no systematic way of compiling history.
2	Muslims, for the first time, formally started recording the Holy Prophet’s (P.B.U.H) sayings and happenings.
3	This, the art of historiography was originated among Muslims.
4	It was taken to zenith by several Muslim historians.
5	Among them following are the most celebrated historians in Spain.

i.	Ibne Khaldun (1332-1406 A.D) (732-808 H)
1	He was the greatest historical philosopher of Spain.
2	Hitti says of him, 
“No Arab writer indeed no European had ever taken a view of history so comprehensive and philosophy as done by Ibne Khaldun. He was the greatest historical philosopher Islam produced and one of the greatest of all times.”
HIS METHOD
3	Ibne Khaldun gave unique style to the science of historiography.
4	He made it store-house of information and philosophical desertions.
5	He traces the origins of society and the development of civilization in his works.
6	He gives solid reasons for the rise and fall of Kingdoms and dynasties.
7	Most strangely, he brings forth the influence of climate on the formation of a nation’s character.
8	Thus, his work is more than a simple record of past events, rather it is an account of moral lessons and philosophical points regarding human history.

HIS WORKS
9	‘MUQADMA’ is the greatest evidence of his fame.
10	It is the first volume of his renowned work ‘Kitab-ul-Ibar’.
11	It is detailed history of Arabs, Persians and Berbers.

ii.	Ibne Khateeb
1	He was another copious writer in history.
2	He was friend of Ibne Khaldun.
3	His work is ‘History of Grenada’.

iii.	Ibne Qutiyah
1	He was one of the earliest and best known of Spanish historians.
2	He produced a work namely, ‘Tareekh Iftitah Al-Andulus’.
3	This history extends from Muslims conquest of Spain to the early part of AR-III’s reign.

iv.	Ibne Hayyan
1	He was another prolific writer in the history.
2	He produced five books on history.

STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY IN SPAIN
Introduction:
1	Philosophy was one of the main branches of Knowledge which developed tremendously in Muslim Spain.
2	Initially, Muslims philosophers were confined to the study of Islamic thought only.
3	Later on, they were attracted by the philosophical works of Greeks.
4	Some Muslims philosophers also produced their own original thoughts.

Muslim and Greek Philosophy
5	Muslims started learning philosophy with the study of Plato and Aristotle.
6	Aristotle influenced Muslim very greatly.
7	Ibne Rushd became devoted disciple of Aristotle.
8	He produced commentaries on Aristotle which became the fountain source for the Europeans to understand Aristotlian thought.

Themes of Muslim Philosophy in Spain
9	Muslims Philosophers in Spain dealt with variety of themes.
10	They mainly worked on three points;
11	First, to reconcile two opposites: Faith and Reason; Religion and Science.
12	Second, they introduced Scientific Aristotlism in Muslim thought.
13	Third, they worked great deal on speculative Sufism in Islam.

Philosophers in Spain and their works
14	12th C Spain saw spring of philosophical development in Spain.
15	It produced three greatest Muslim Philosophers.

i.	Ibne Bajah
16	He was the most celebrated philosopher in Spain.
17	He was born at Sargossa in 11th C.
18	He gave new life to philosophy after Ibne Sina.
19	He became disciple of Farabi.
20	He gave in fact a neo-platonic interpretation of Aristotle in conservative line.
21	His masterpiece ‘Tdbir-al-Mutawahid’

ii.  Ibne Rushd
22	He was born in 1126 A.D in Cordova.
23	He was the greatest commentator on Aristotle.
24	He produced two great masterpieces in philosophy.
25	‘Tahfat-ul-Tahafat’ (Destruction of the destruction)
26	‘Kitab-ul-Filasafa’ (Discourse on Philosophy)

iii.  Ibne Arabi
27	He was greatest speculative genius of Islamic Sufism.
28	His greatest contribution is to mix Sufism with Pantheism.
29	He exerted great influence on Persian and Turkish Sufi circles.
30	He has been entitled as ‘Qutub-ud-Din’.
31	His philosophical works include, ‘Al-Fatuhat-ul-Makkiyah’ and ‘Fasus-ul-Hikmah’.
32	He promoted the doctrine of ‘Wahdat-ul-Wajood’.
33	He exerted influence on Dante.

iv. Ibne Maymoon
34	He wrote a philosophical work, named, ‘Dalalat-ul-Harim’.
35	He discussed reconciliation of Jewish theology with Muslim Aristotlism.
36	His work has resemblance with that of Ibne Rushd.

v. Ben Gabriel
37	His philosophical work is ‘Yanbu al-Hayya’.
38	He was a Jew and was called Jewish Plato.
39	He worked on neo-platism.

vi. Ibne Tufail
40	His philosophical work is ‘Hayy Ibn Yaqzan’.
41	He has discussed human capacity to attend knowledge of the higher world.
42	This became a celebrated theory in Europe.

DEVELOPMENT OF MEDICINE IN MULSIM WORLD
Introduction
1	Arabs before Islam possessed limited knowledge of medicines.
2	Under Abbasid ruler, development of medical science began in Muslim world.
3	There were mainly four phases of medicinal development in Muslim world.

I. The Translation Period
4	From 750 A.D to 900 A.D
5	Collection from all over the world.
6	Muslim translators were;
i.	Jarjas ibn Bakht Yishu
ii.	School for translation in Baghdad

II. Independent Observation and Criticism
7	Golden age in Muslim medicines.
8	This period produced marvelous scholar of medicines.
1.	Al – Tabri
o	Favourite physician of Mutawakil.
o	Firdous-al-Hikmat
2.	Al – Razi
2	The greatest physician of Muslim world of all times.
2	His masterpiece in medicine was ‘Al-Hawai’ which was based on 20 volumes.
3	His other book on medicine was ‘Judari-wal-Hasbah’.
3.	Ibne Sina
2	Ibne Sina was greatest medical giant of his time.
2	He wrote a renown book titled ‘Qanun-al-Tib’.

“It has remained a medical Bible for a longer time than any other book.”
(Dr. Osler)
3	Dante, the Italian poet, paid high tribute to Ibne Sina.

III. The age of Decline
9	As the name suggests, the decline started in this period.
10	Muslim decline was proportional to European rise
11	All masterpieces were translated into European languages.
12	The rationale for Muslim decline and European rise was the hostility of religious circles to the development of secular knowledge.

IV. The Present Age
13	In the present age, east is relying mostly on west.
14	The west masters all branches of knowledge including medicine.
15	Muslim medicinal methods abandoned.
16	The western ways being practiced all over the world.

IBNE KHALDUN
Introduction
17	Born in 1332 at Tunis in a Spanish family.
18	Ibne khaldun was the most eminent and unique historical philosopher and social scientist of Muslim Spain during the 14th C.
19	He formulated cyclic theory of national progress and decay based on his popular concept of ‘al-asabiyya’ or ‘Social Solidarity’.

“Ibne Khaldun has taken a view of history so comprehensive and philosophic that no Arab, indeed no European had done so ever.”
(P. K. Hitti)
20	Being the learned scholar of his time, he held several posts at ‘Fas’ before entering in the service of ‘Sultan of Granada’.

Intellectual Life
21	He started writing in 1382 A.D.
22	He became professor at Al-Azhar University, Cairo.
23	Later on, he served as Qazi of Cairo.

Historiography
24	He was a keen observer of contemporary politics.
25	
MUQADDAMAH
26	‘Muqadammah’ is Ibne Khaldun’s masterpiece in study of sociology and understanding of human history.
27	It explains forces of cohesion and solidarity.
28	It formulates a theory of Historical development.
29	It elaborates Role of climate, geography, moral and spiritual forces in rise and fall of nations.
30	It promulgates laws of national progress and decay.
31	It elucidates origin of society and civilization.

IBNE SINA
Introduction:
32	His full name was Abu Ali Hussian Ibne Sina.
33	In the west, he is knows as ‘Avicenna’.
34	He obtained great fame in the field of medicine.

“In this physician, philosopher and poet, Arab science culminates or one might say incarnates.”
(P. K. Hitti)
Early Life
35	Born in 980 A.D near Bukhara.
36	He spent most of his lifetime in eastern part of Muslim world.
37	He had the honour to cure ‘Sultan of Bukhara’ in his teenage.
38	He had the privileged access to the Royal Library.

Achievement in Medicine
39	Ibne Sina was an unrivalled expert in the field of medicine.
40	He commenced writing at the age of 21.
41	He wrote more than 200 books on various subjects.

Al-Qanun-al-Tib
42	Sina’s masterpiece on medicine, ‘Al-Qanun-al-tib’ was a detailed account of medicinal straits and issues in his age.
43	It was encyclopedic piece on medicine.
44	It was translated into Latin and other languages of the world.
45	It was regarded as final codification of Greco-Arab medical thought.
46	It throws light upon diseases, symptoms and drugs to cure them.
47	A veteran writer and historian commented about this book by saying;

“It has remained a medial Bible for a longer period than any other book in the history.”
(P. K. Hitti)
Achievements in Philosophy
48	Ibne Sina was a concurrent philosopher beside physician.
49	His novel work on philosophy was ‘Kitab-al-Shifa’.

Kitab-al-Shifa
50	It was an encyclopedic work on philosophy in the Sina’s times.
51	It was impacted and modified by Neo-Platonism and Muslim theology.
52	It is generally believed that harmonization of Greek philosophy with Islam was commenced by ‘Al-Kindi’, continued by ‘Al-Farabi’ and completed by ‘Ibne Sina.’
53	It was through him that the Greek system, particularly that of Philosophy, was rendered capable of incorporation with Islam.
54	It was due to his unmatched endeavours and achievements that renowned Italian poet ‘DANTE, paid tribute him by placing him in the company of Plato and Aristotle.

As a Father of Geology
55	He wrote a book on mountains and earth’s interior.
56	He gave the scientific reasons for earthquake.
57	Thus, he was considered as the Father of Geology.

Achievements in other sciences
58	He has discussed several aspects of Logic, Physics, Mathematics and Astronomy in his book ‘Al-Shifa’.
59	His other prominent works include;
Ø	‘Anijat’
Ø	‘Isharat’
Ø	The book of Theorems

Achievements in Music
60	He wrote commentaries on some earlier works of Music.
61	He also produced some original treatise in his book ‘Al-Shifa’.
62	Those desertions were translated into Latin and held high influence in Europe.

Literary Achievements
63	The best known rhythmic work of Ibne Sina was in form of an ode.
64	The ode was titled as, ‘The Descent of Soul into the Body from Higher Sphere.’
65	The musical composition of this ode was extraordinary
66	This ode is retained in mind by a number of students in the east and sung by heart.

Conclusion
67	Ibne Sina was undoubtedly the greatest of Muslim intellectuals, Philosophers and Scientist that Muslim world ever produced.
68	For centuries afterwards, he remained the source of guidance and satisfied the thirsty of the knowledge.

Notes of Study Area – I (C)

EURPOEAN RENAISSANC AND MUSLIM LEARNING IN SPAIN/BAGHDAD

“Spain and not Italy was cradle of the rebirth of Europe. After sinking lower I and lower in barbarianism, it had reached the darkest depth of ignorance and degradation when the cities of Baghdad, Cairo, Cordova, Toledo were growing centers of civilization and intellectual activity. It was there that the new life arose which was to grow ino a new phase of human evolution. From the time when the influence of their culture made itself, began the stirring of a new life.”
					(Robert Briffault)

“It was by way of Spain that the longest works of Aristotle reached western Christendom to revolutionize scholastic philosophy and theology.”
(Hearnshaw)

“The whole of Europe except Italy was in a state of barbarianism it was the civilization of Islam which fused light into Europe.”
(John W. Cambell)

“The student flocked from the France, England, germany and every part of Europe to drink from the fountain of learning which flowed only in the city of Moors.”
(Lane Poole)

“In the eighth century, the Moors conquered Spain and as if by magic, a splendid civilization sprang into being.”
(C. T. Gorham)

EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE AND LEARNING AS A RESULT OF MUSLIM LEARNING

EUROPE IN DARK AGES BEFORE ARRIVAL OF MUSLIMS

69	Europe had no culture and civilization in dark ages.
70	Learning and knowledge was non-existent for long.
71	The clergy had paralyzed every walk of life.
72	The corruption and atrocities were norms of clergy.
73	Religious freedom was in short supply.
74	Enjoyment and pleasure in life was unknown to human imagination.

EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE DUE TO MUSLIM INFLUENCES
75	Muslims initiated the mighty revolution of culture, civilization and learning in Europe.
76	All the factors that contributed to bring about this renaissance were given birth by Muslims in one way or the other.
77	Muslim universities effected European renaissance in following ways;

Discovery of Greek Classics
78	Muslims discovered, studied and preserved the Greek classics.
79	Muslim scholar such Ibn Rushd and others became devoted disciples of Aristotle and other Greek custodians of knowledge.
80	They revived and revitalized the true spirit of classical learning.
81	Thus, it was from the Muslim masters that the Europeans adopted the learning of classical knowledge which became harbinger of renaissance in Europe.

Decline of Church Dominance
82	Rebirth of reasoning faculty in Europe overthrew inveterate church dominancy.
83	People of European renaissance began to understand life and its problems from a rational perspective.
84	Blind observance of illogical and dogmatic beliefs became moribund.
85	All this change and development of thought could not have been possible without the vigour and force of reason derived from the modern and scientific learning of Muslims.

Spirit of Discovery
86	Spirit of discovery was the outcome of renaissance.
87	This spirit was inculcated in minds of Europeans when they acquired knowledge at Muslims universities.
88	Discovery of America was practical manifestation of this spirit.

Love for Learning
89	Ignorance in Europe had long strangled the love learning/spirit of questioning.
90	Muslim conquest of Spain and their inherent love for learning inspired and inculcated craving for knowledge among the Europeans.
91	This became the foundation of European renaissance and modern learning.

Individualism
92	Individualism was spirit of renaissance.
93	It was derived from Islamic culture and spirit.
94	Individual became more important than church and their ilk for the first time in the history.

Love for Art and Literature
95	Europeans received greatest effect of Arabic language and literature.
96	The Spanish Masterpiece in novel genre: Don Quixote has Arabic origin as claimed by its author.
97	The most significant contribution of Arabic was to liberate western imagination.

Development of Science during Renaissance and Muslim Influence
98	The European countries got to know about the modern sciences during the renaissance through Muslim scholars.
99	Al-khuwarizimi in Maths, Jabir bin Hayyan in Chemistry, Ibne Sina in Medicine, Idirisi in Geography became the Masters of European students.
100	The works of these Muslim scientists were translated into European languages.
101	The translated versions became the part of syllabus taught in schools and universities.
102	Thus, the acquisition of modern science and their subsequent development in Europe owes a great deal to Muslim knowledge.

WAYS AND MEANS BY WHICH ISLAMIC CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION TRANSFERRED TO EUROPE

iii.	Educational Institutions
§	University of Granada
§	Educational Institutes at Cordova.
§	‘Baitul Hikma’ in Baghdad.
§	‘Nizamiah’
§	‘Darul Hikma’ at Cairo.

iv.	Translations
1	Toledo Translatory School.
2	Separated from Muslim Spain in 11th Century.
3	Attracted scholars and translators from all over Europe.
4	All masterpieces of Muslim world were translated.
5	Acted as transmitter of Islamic culture and civilization to Europe.

v.	Poetry and Literature
1	Arabic poetry and literature translated to European languages.
2	It gave boost to the poetic genius hitherto dormant.
3	Through poetry and literature, Muslim culture and civilization transferred.

vi.	Art and Architecture
1	Muslim arts.
2	Brilliant Muslim Architecture stunned the Europeans.
3	Al-Hamra Palace, Grand Mosque of Damascus and Grand Mosque of Cordova.
4	Through architecture, Muslim civilization impacted European renaissance.

vii.	Grandeur of Muslim Cities
1	Cordova, the Jewel of the World.

“The Great social and cultural progress of Cordova inspired awe and admiration in the hearts of European travelers.”
(R. Dozy)
viii.	Conquest of Christian lands by Muslims
2	Spain
3	Sicily
4	Toledo

Notes of Study Area – II:

MUSLIMS IN NORTH AFRICA

THE CONQUEST S OF NORTH AFRICA
From Amr-bin-Aas to Uqba binNafi and onwards

Introduction
1	Islamic revolution and the teachings of the Holy Prophet (P.B.U.H) were never confined to the Arabian Peninsula.
2	It spread far and wide into European and African lands.
3	The journey started during the caliphate of Hazrat Umar (R.A) and ended in the days of Walid bin Abdul Malik, the Umayyad Caliph.

Amr-bin-Aas and the Conquest of Egypt
4	Egypt was under the Roman subjection prior to Muslim conquest.
5	The African Christians were suppressd by their Romans rulers due to the differences in the beliefs of the two discrete religions.
6	Amr-bin-Aas sought permission from the Caliph Hazrat Umar (R.A) to invade Egypt.
7	He marched with 4,000 Muslims troops towards Egypt.
8	The then governor of Egypt, Maqukas, took refuge in the fort of ‘Kistat’.
9	Hazrat Umar (R.A) sent reinforcement of 10,000 Muslims to quicken the conquest.
10	After seven months of prolonged siege, the city fell in the hands of Muslims.

The Conquest of Iskandria
11	Amr-bin-Aas sieged Iskandria..
12	The Roman emperor retaliated with a mighty army.
13	The Kasiar of Rome died and Maqukas made agreement with Muslims.
14	Incidentally, the whole Egypt was yielded to Muslims.

The Conquests during Hazrat Uthman’s Caliphate
15	Hazrat Uthman appointed Abdullah bin Abi Sarah as the governor of Egypt.
16	He was man of passions and courage.
17	He first invaded Trablus.
18	The governor of Trablus came with one lac twenty thousand troops.
19	The war lasted for many days and lingered on stalemate.
20	Hazrat Uthman sent reinforcement under the command of Abdullah bin Zubair.
21	He made repeated attacks on Trablus and made them surrender.

Conquest by Uqba bin Nafe during the rule of Amir Muaw’ya
22	Muslim rule was extended and strengthened by Uqba bin Nafe.
23	Uqba conquered two major regions Lawata and Zanana.
24	He laid down the foundation of KIRWAN.
25	He established several cantonments to keep check on the rebellious North-Africans.

Under the reign of Yazid
26	Uqba continued conquering the African cities one after the other.
Rebellion of Kasila
27	Uqba was betrayed by a Berber leader Kasila, who had embraced Islam.
28	He damaged the Muslim army on large scale.
Abdul Malik and North-African Conquest
29	He appointed Zahir to put down the rebellion and rule of Kasila, in Kirwan.
30	Zahir defeated Kasila and destroyed his accomplices.
31	Later on, the Romans attacked Zahir and martyred him.

Hass’an and his Conquests
32	Hass’an once again conquered the lost Kirwan.
33	Hass’an then marched to Kastajna where Berbers ad Romans were gathering force.
34	Here, Hassa’an inflicted a crushing defeat on the both Berbers and Romans.
35	This victory strengthened Muslim rule in North Africa greatly.

Queen Wamiya and Hass’an
36	After victory at Kartajna, Hass’an decided to attack Queen Wamiya’s region.
37	She was very influential and notorious due to her alleged super-natural powers.
38	Hass’an was defeated at her hands and Muslim army suffered huge losses.
39	Nearly half a decade later, Hass’an returned with mighty army and routed Queen Wamiya.
40	This became a decisive victory for Muslim authority and power in North Africa.

Musa bin Nusair
41	Musa was appointed by Walid.
42	He expelled all Romans from North-Africa.
43	The elderly and prudent administration of Musa brought prosperity in the region.
44	His principles of equality, honour, justice and liberty won the hearts of many Berbers who converted to Islam in his reign.

OTTOMANS OF TURKEY
Introduction

1	Timeline (1299 A.D to 1st November, 1922).
Ø	First Caliph: USMAN
Ø	Last Caliph: Muhammad-VI, Wahid-al-Din
Ø	Total 36 Kings (Caliphs).
Ø	Other prominent rulers in this dynasty were;
Ø	Muhammad –II (Al-Fateh)
Ø	Salim-I
Ø	Suleiman-I (1522-1566 A.D)
2	Fall of Anatolia (Modern Turkey).
3	Fall of Byzantine (Constantinopole).
4	Seljuks (Turkish – 1071).
5	Ten Ghazi Principalities.
6	One of the Ghazi Principality was led by Usman-I.
7	Usman-I became the father of Ottoman dynasty.
8	

MUAHMMAD – II ( AL - FATAH ) 1450-1481 A.D
Introduction
1	The conquest of Constantinople was the landmark victory which Muhammad-II had under his belt.
2	It was due to this reason that he was called Al-Fatah.
3	As governor of Manise at an early age, he continued to acquire an excellent education and expertise in Arabic, Persian and Greek.
4	He was a polyglot as well as a polymath.
5	He was ambitious, persistent and prudent in pursuing his purposed aims.

Early Rebellion by Candash Halil
1	Anti-Muhammad Turkish gentry were led by Candash Halil.
2	They opposed in court to the plans of Muhammad-II against invading Constantinople.
3	He had to force his mother in exile in Serbia to concentrate on his expansion policy.
4	However, to appease Turkish nobility, he signed various peace treaties with Serbia.
5	Furthermore, to concretize his rule, he replaced commanders of janissary corps (personal guards of Sultan) who sided with Halil.

Muhammad-II’s dream of Establishing a World Empire
6	He cherished a dream to establish World Empire with Constantinople as its centre.
7	Thus, he focused his eyes on realizing this dream by invading Constantinople.

Conquest of Constantinople
8	He began with building a fort of Rumeli Hisa on the European side of Bosporus to gain control of the water way and shrink Byzantine’s communications with the Black Sea as well as to assure passage of Ottoman troops from Anatolia to Europe.
9	In February 1453 A.D, first troops occupied Byzantine seaports along the Marmora Sea.
10	In May 1453 A.D, the rampart was demolished and the Ottoman troops entered the Golden Horn.

Impacts of Conquest of Constantinople
11	It brought with itself the recognition of Muslim authority and suzerainty over the entire region.
12	Complete control over Black Sea and Mediterranean established a stronghold of Muslims besides generating ample revenue.
13	This also made it comfortable for Muhammad-II to overthrow Wallachian and annex Siberia and Bosnia into his empire.
14	It was giant leap towards realization of his dream as he had landed his one foot in Asia and other in Europe.
15	Muslim world acknowledged his conquest with dignity and pride.
16	He, in return also claimed superiority over his contemporary Muslim rulers especially the neighbouring Mamluk Sultans..

Restructuring of Empire 
17	He dismissed Grand Wazir Candash Halil and imprisoned him along with his family.
18	Zaganos Pasha replaced Halil and was given tremendous powers to exercise.
19	However, Muhammad-II himself controlled revenue, military and other very important institutions of the Empire.
20	Administration setup was further divided into Chief Judge, Chief Treasurer and Chief Scribe.

Millet System
21	He put an end to feudal oppression and secured the lives of those oppressed by feuds.
22	He revived old traditions of peaceful living and preserved the old customs.
23	Religious freedom and security prevailed in his rule.

Moldavia
24	The state of Moldavia was ruled by Stephen, The Great who aimed at gaining control over Black Sea and The Crimea.
25	Later on, Muhammad-II and Stephen signed a peace treaty which neutralized the Walachia territory.
26	Muhammad-II then moved to deal with Karaman who was fomenting revolt in Anatolia. 

Revolt of Vlad IV
27	Vlad IV invaded northern territories of Bulgaria which alarmed Muhammad-II instantly.
28	Muhammad-II’s severe retaliation brought Wallachia under his rule.
29	However, he returned the territory to Vlad’s brother who promised to pay tribute to Muhammad-II.

New Wars in Europe
30	War with Venice erupted after the Pope Pius-II conspired against ottomans in 1463 A.D.
31	Venice seized a number of Aegean islands.
32	Mathias Corvinus of Hungary prepared to fight Ottomans in Walachia.
33	Stephen invaded Walachia to replace Radu (Vlad IV’s brother).
34	Jagellonians of Lithuania and Poland allied with the Golden Horde to extend to Ukraine bordering Moldavia and to Black Sea.
35	Muhammad succeeded at Crimea.
36	Stephen and Jagellonians together with Hungarian troops routed Ottomans at Rakovitza.

Muhammad-II’s war strategies
37	He was deeply engrossed in war tactics and held secrecy as a prime feature in war.
38	He kept his army vigilant but never apprised them of when and where to attack.
39	He once stated; 
“If a single hair of my beard knew where to attack, I would pluck it out and cast it into the fire.”
40	He fortified in surrounding of Constantinople to secure it from all sides.
41	He held the control over Marmora and Black Sea and made it almost impregnable.

Economic Development
42	Native industry flourished enormously in his era.
43	Cotton and Silk especially in Basra, Istanbul and Salonica.
44	He expanded the circle of trade internationally.
45	He minted new coins and appointed executive officers for it.

Muhammad-II’s legal system
46	He utilized the law codes of Byzantines as models for legislation and codification in his reign.
47	Civil and military laws were especially codified and imposed with effect.
48	He synthesized the goods and codes of Mamluks, Turkish, Byzantines and Mongols.
49	He was tilted towards liberalism hence allowed much freedom.

Development of Science and Literature
50	He constructed several libraries and an especial observatory adjacent to his palace.
51	He invited a number of artists, scientists, writers, musicians and scholars to his capital.
52	He patronized religious activities as well and made Constantinople a cultural center.

Conclusion
53	Muhammad-II is regarded as the most ablest of Ottoman rulers.
54	An apt statesman, strong soldier, efficient administrator and astute emperor.
55	In his era, literature, science, philosophy, arts and music all flourished richly.
56	His conquests justified his title of Al-Fatah, the Victorious.

Sulaiman the Magnificent – (1520-1566 A.D)
Introduction
45	No other prince of the House of Uthman was able to take the throne with such advantages as those left to Sulaiman in 1520 A.D
46	He was an able administrator and an enterprising soldier.
47	He conquered lands and consolidated his occupied territories.
48	He himself led the military on thirteen campaigns and was regarded as greatest of all military leaders of ottoman.
49	He had under his belt many epithets. The most prominent among all were, ‘Law-giver’, ‘Grand Turk’ and ‘Magnificent’.

Unrivaled Glory of Sulaiman
50	The elongated reign of Sulaiman underscored unparalleled glory of the mighty king.
51	He excelled all his contemporary rulers which include Charles-V, Henry-VIII, Elizabeth, Sigismund of Poland, Shah Ismail of Persia and Akbar The Great.
52	It was his acumen which enabled him to emerge from the conflicts stronger and triumphant than ever.
53	His reign saw enormous progress in culture, economy and legislation.

Sulaiman’s Gracious Rule
54	He was well known for his clemency and justice.
55	He punished evil-doers and rewarded virtuous.
56	He showed great prudence in administering the rights to his subjects as well as strengthening his authority.
57	His magnanimity and altruism were proverbial.

Conquests by Sulaiman the Magnificent
Conquest of Belgrade and Venice in 1521 A.D
58	The convoy of Sulaiman was insulted by Hungary which infuriated Sulaiman.
59	He led a siege and conquered Belgrade.
60	Venice also surrendered which formed a jewel in the ottoman crown.

A Strategic conquest of Rhodes in 1522 
61	As pirates of Rhodes used to capture and loot Muslims ships loaded with grain and gold cutting their way through it, it was imperative for Sulaiman to include Rhodes in his reign.
62	This was a strategic victory as it also offered Levantine waters to the ottoman fleets.

Revolt of Janissaries and Grand Wazir Ibrahim
63	After surrender of Rhodes, Sulaiman busied himself in quelling a revolt led by Janissaries in Egypt.
64	He had to compromise by offering colossal amount which proved heavy on state coffins but helped him to pacify rebels.
65	Ibrahim was made Co-Sultan beside being Grand Wazir in 1523, who knew how to appease Janissaries.

Fall of Ahmed Pasha and Reorganization of Administrative System in Egypt 
66	In 1524, Ahmed Shah vehemently opposed Sulaiman’s authority and declared himself the sultan of Egypt.
67	However, he was soon killed an uprising which left a vacuum in the authority of Egypt.
68	Sulaiman sent Ibrahim with special instructions to revitalize administration of Egypt.
69	Various institutions were restructured and reformed added to the proper vigilance of the state-run institutions.

Revolt in Anatolia (1526-1528 A.D)
70	A number of rebellions were carried out in Anatolia.
71	First one was led by a Celabi preacher Baba Zunnun.
72	Second revolt was led by Kalender Celabi.
73	Both the upheavals were quelled with ease.

Invasion of Hungary
74	One hundred thousand troops siege was laid against Louis – II of Hungary.
75	Sulaiman defeated him at Mohacs and Hungary became a province of Ottoman Empire for 140 years.
76	Prior to that Hungary was regarded as rampart of Europe against Turks.

Second Hungarian Expedition 1527-1529 A.D
77	Ferdinand-I of Austria had defeated the Prince of Transylvania, John Zapolya, who was also nominal king of Hungary.
78	John Zapolya, immediately subscribed to the suzerainty of Sulaiman and sought help to drive out Ferdinand-I.
79	This brought the second siege of Hungary by Sulaiman in 1528 A.D.

Siege of Vienna 1529 A.D
80	Sulaiman mounted the first siege of Vienna in the hope of capturing the Hapsburg capital.
81	This siege had great strategic importance;
82	It secured ottoman possession ofHungary as well as the new vassal relationship with Zaploya.
83	It ravaged the parts of Northern Hungary and Austria making the Ferdinand-I incapable of launching any counter attack against Sulaiman.

Attack against Safavids and conquest of Mesopotamia and Persian Gulf
84	Safavids had always been stirring Turkoman uprising in Anatolia.
85	Baghdad and Basra was already in Safavids hands where Shia heresy was prevalent instead of orthodox Islam.
86	Shah Tahmasp had planned to form his central government in Iran (Mesopotamia).
87	However, Sulaiman had entirely different plans as he saw this region with economic sight.
88	Iran hindered trade between Far East and Europe.
89	Shah Tahmasp avoided conflict with Sulaiman and abandoned territory in favour of Sulaiman.
90	Thus, Sulaiman the Magnificent brought under his rule the Persian Gulf in 1538 A.D

Naval Conflicts with Hapsburg and Rise of Khayruddin Barbarossa
91	A naval conflict arose in the 16th century over control of western Mediterranean.
92	Spanish government imperiously hankered Hafsids, the local dynasty, as well as Algerian and Moroccans to succumb to their authority.
93	However, Khayrrudin emerged as the greatest of Muslim Admirals and fought relentlessly against Christian raids from Hapsburg.
94	He also succeeded in annexing Algiers to Ottoman Empire.

Alliance with France against Hapsburg in Mediterranean
95	Admiral Khyruddin Barbarossa built a new fleet and raided against Hapsburg in alliance with France.
96	Due to the French deceits, a peace treaty was signed in 1545 A.D.

Ottoman’s Naval Supremacy in Aegean and Ionian Seas
97	Withdrawal of France from northern Italy after the conflicts between Charles-V and Francis had ended, proved to be a betrayal to Sulaiman.
98	Thus, Sulaiman himself endeavoured to bring Aegean and Ionian islands in his suzerainty.
99	These victories were also achieved under the command of Barbarossa.

Execution of Ibrahim Pasha and Beginning of Sultanate of Women
100	Grand Wazir of Sulaiman, Ibrahim Pasha had started malpractices as he took bribes from Safavids to revolt against Sulaiman.
101	He also invaded Azerbaijan without the permission of Sulaiman.
102	He intended to make his independent rule over the region.
103	Sulaiman executed him along with ruining all his evil intentions.
104	Later on, Khurram Sultan, wife of Sulaiman (Roxelana), built her own harem party to control ottoman system.
105	She intended to secure the right of succession for her son.
106	This marked the beginning of ascendancy of the women of harem.

Sulaiman The Magnificent as a law-giver/his system of Justice
107	 A vast number of religious scholars and jurists served in his court who joined their efforts to bring out the best Justice system which suits everyone in the empire.
108	Laws and codes were written, specified and institutionalized.
109	Various punishments and penalties were designed for number of crimes including robbery, adultery, murder etc.
110	A Qanunnama was also drawn up in Sulaiman’s name which registered and authenticated punishments and legalities.

His Economic Reforms
111	Sulaiman had the sense to tax everyone accordingly.
112	Taxes were levied according to the taxpayer’s ability to pay.
113	Out of way taxes and confiscations were strictly forbidden.
114	The conquered territories had a governor to oversee the smooth functioning of revenue system and ensure a fixed amount to be sent to state exchequer.

His cultural Achievements
1	Suleiman was himself a poet.
2	His renowned contribution in poetry was “Mohibbi” in Persian.
3	His verses became Turkish proverbs in the later years.
4	Fuzali – Baki – The Poets of the Day.

Architectural Development
5	Mimar Sinan, chief architect.
6	Ottoman architecture reached its zenith in Suleiman’s period.
7	Master pieces were;
i.	Sulaimaniye Mosque
ii.	Salimiye Mosque
iii.	Restored Dome of the Rock
iv.	Renovated Ka’aba.
v.	A Complex in Damascus.

Conclusion
115	His rule was like his name, magnanimous.
116	Justice, rule of law, fraternity and liberty was ensured to everyone.
117	His rule marked the apogee of power and apex of glory and grandeur of Ottoman Empire.
118	He was regarded as the sacrosanct throughout his empire.
119	The Nile, The Jordan, The Tigris, The Euphrates, The Danube, The Hubris and The Ilyssus rolled their waters within the shadow of Horse-tail of Sulaiman.
120	With the death of Sulaiman, the power of Turks began to wane.

Ottoman Tanzimat

Introduction
1	A period of Reforms. (1839-1876 A.D).
2	Ended with the first constitution era.

Origin
3	Emerged from the minds of reformist. 
4	Sultan Mehumd-II and Abdul Melid-I were the pioneers.
5	Their recognition of the new needs of the modern trends in the new century.

Goals
6	Ambitious projects launched to combat the slow decline of the empire.
7	To stop the gradual decline of the empire by promoting ottomanism among the people of the empire.

Reforms
8	Guarantee to ensure ottoman subject. Perfect security for their lives, honour and property.
9	First ottoman paper bank notes in 1840 A.D
10	Reorganization of Army. Formal recruiting, levying the army, fixing the duration.
11	Adoption of ottoman national anthem/flag.
12	Reorganization of Finance system on French model.
13	Establishment of first modern universities in academics.
14	Induction of non-Muslims in ottoman army.
15	Rail roads were constructed.
16	First stock exchange in Istanbul.
17	

MUSLIM ARCHITECTURE IN SPAIN
Background
121	Early Muslim not interested in architectural activity.
122	They worshipped ‘Kaba’ which was nothing more than four walls.
123	Later Muslim dynasties adored architecture.

Pre-Islamic Architecture
Byzantine Architecture
124	More developed architecture.
125	Merged eastern and western architectural styles.
126	Main expertise was in church architecture.
127	Masterpiece: Church of St. Sophia at Constantinopole.

Nestorian and Sassinid Architecture
128	Nestorian – in Mesopotamia.
129	Sassinid in Persia.

Coptic Architecture
130	In Egypt.
131	Ancient and outdated.

Muslim Contribution to Architecture
1. The Arch
132	Pointed Arch.
133	Greatest contributed to the art.
134	Employed in Spain.
135	It eclipsed the old horse-shoe form of arch in Northern Syria.

2. The system of Vaulting
136	

Masterpieces of Muslim Architecture
1. Grand Mosque of Cordova
137	Founded by A.R-I 170 A.H.
138	Completed by Hisham-I 177 A.H.
139	Twelve hundred and 93 colums (Pillars).
140	Brass lantersn.
141	80 thousand gold pieces spent on its structure.

2. Al-Hammbra – Palace of Granada
142	Built by Muhammad Ali Ghalib. 646 A.H, 1248 A.D
143	Completed by Abu Al-Hajjaj.
144	This is the last word in architecture.
145	Most celebrated portion; ‘Court of Lion’.
2	In the center of court twelve 12 marble lions stand in a circle.
3	Each lion spouting at a jet of water from its mouth.
146	Ceiling depicts scenes painter on leather illustrating tales of chivalry.
147	One of the greatest masterpiece of all times.

3. Madinat-al-Zahra
5	He built the most magnificent palace called Medinat-ul-Zahra.
6	It was initiated after his beloved wife Zahra asked him to found a city and name it after her name.
7	It was situated 25Kms away in the north-west of Cordova.
148	To attract inhabitants, he offered 400 dirhams to the settlers.

Immitation of Muslim Architecture in Europe
149	In Toledo

IBNE RUSHD (Averros)
Introduction and early life:
150	Abu al Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmed Rushd.
151	Born in Cordova (1126-1198)
152	Grandfather was the chief judge of Cordova.
As a philosopher
153	Greatest philosopher in Muslim Spain.
154	Greatest commentator of Aristotle and Plato.
155	One of the greatest philosopher genius of all times.
As s Rationalist:
156	He believed that the revealed dogmas should be put to question.
157	Everything can be known by human reason.
Ibne Rushd’s Reformation of Ghazali’s Attack on Rationalism
158	Ghazali’s ‘Thafat-ul-Falasifa’. (Destruction of Philosophy).
159	We can never know things by reasoning but only by unquestioning acceptance of what is revealed to us.”
160	Ibne Rushd “Thafat-ul-Thafat”. (Destruction of Destruction)

A commentator of Aristotle
161	For him, Aristotle was the greatest thinker.
162	Aristotle was a perfect man having infallible truth.
163	Ibne Rushd interpreted Aristotlian thought with originality.

His commentary on Plato
164	Islamic state is better than Plato’s Republic.
165	Islamic concept of Imam – Plato’s Philosopher King.

Averroism in Europe
166	He exerted tremendous influence on European thought.
167	12th – 16th Century.
168	During renaissance it flourished in Italy.
169	Many proudly declared themselves as Averroists.
170	His writings became prescribed studies in University of Venice and Paris.

Orthodox reaction to Averrorism
171	Very sharp reaction of church against averrorism.
172	But it flourished during renaissance especially after purging of objectionable poets.
173	Islamic world reacted during renaissance especially after Purging to Objectionable poets.
174	Islamic world reacted due to Ibne Rushd’s attack on Imam Ghazali’s thought.

Preservation of his commentaries
175	He knew no Greek language.
176	He had to depend on tranlisteration of Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibje Bajia, Ibne Tufail.
177	His own commentaries were preserved in Hebrew or Latin transliteration..

Contribution in Medicine
178	An encyclopedic work, Al-Kulliyat-fi-al-Tibb.
179	Small pox not twice in life.
180	Functions of Retina.

FATIMIDS OF EGYPT
Introduction

181	Fatimids lasted from 909 to 1171 A.D (297-567 A.H).
182	Total period of rule 262 years.
183	First caliph: Ubaidullah, Al-Mehdi
184	Last Caliph: Al-Azad
185	Abu Abdullah Hussain was the key preacher of Shia in Sana (Yemen).
186	Fatimid capital: Mehdya (founded by Ubaidullah-al-Mehdi
187	Al-Muiz bin Ismail, great Abbasid caliph (952-975 A.D) conquered Egypt.
188	He founded city of Cairo.
189	He established Jamia-al-Azahar (Al-Azhar University).
190	Later on, he shifted capital from Al-Mehdya to Cairo.
191	Thus, Fatimids came to an end.

Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC)
192	Established on September, 26, 1969.
193	Headquarters at Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
194	Current members 57.
195	Observers 5. (Russia, Bosnia, Cyprus, Thailand.)

Objectives
196	Immediate aim: Liberation of Jerusalem
197	Unity and solidarity among Muslims.
198	Resolve disputes among members.
199	Political, social, economic emancipation of Muslims.
200	Safeguard independence and rights of Muslims.

Functions
201	Collective security
202	Peaceful resolution of disputes.
203	Joint and uniform foreign policy.
204	Technical cooperation.

Instances of Inefficiency
205	1971 – Indian Intrusion in East Pakistan (Bangladesh).
206	1973 – Arab-Israel War.
207	1980-88 Iran-Iraq War.
208	1990 – Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.
209	2001 – U.S invasion of Afghanistan.
210	2003 – U.S invasion of Iraq.
211	2006 - Israeli invasion of Lebanon.
212	No role in the resolution of Kashmir dispute.
213	Ineffective role in Palestine issue.
214	Russian atrocities in Chechnya.
215	No role in Bosnia.
216	Silent on Iran’s nuclear programme.
217	Dormant on caricatures controversy.

Causes of Failure
218	Extreme poverty and uneven development.
219	High illiteracy rate. -65% average illiteracy rate.
220	Lack of skill and technical expertise.
221	Lesser role of woman in national development.
222	Military weakness.
223	Absence of democratic credentials.
224	Lack of leadership.
225	Internal cleavages.
226	Arab racism and other Muslim States.

Remedies
227	Collective Military Might must be set up on the pattern of NATO.
228	Strong and Independent Media.
229	Uplifting the under developed Muslim States.
230	Advancement in science and Technology.
231	Get rid of conservatism.
232	Discard belief in traditionalism.
233	Promote education.
234	Ameliorate the poor. Alleviate the Poverty.
235	Uniform sound foreign policy.
236	Establishing common markets.
237	Common currency on the model of EURO.
238	Wipe out internal differences.
239	Establish Islamic Development Banks.